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Kazakhstan vs. Turkmenistan

Introduction

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Background

Ethnic Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes with additional Persian cultural influences, migrated to the region in the 15th century. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1925. Repression and starvation associated with forced agricultural collectivization led to a massive number of deaths in the 1930s. During the 1950s and 1960s, the agricultural "Virgin Lands" program led to an influx of settlers (mostly ethnic Russians, but also other nationalities) and at the time of Kazakhstan's independence in 1991, ethnic Kazakhs were a minority. Non-Muslim ethnic minorities departed Kazakhstan in large numbers from the mid-1990s through the mid-2000s and a national program has repatriated about a million ethnic Kazakhs (from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Mongolia, and the Xinjiang region of China) back to Kazakhstan. As a result of this shift, the ethnic Kazakh share of the population now exceeds two-thirds.

Kazakhstan's economy is the largest in the Central Asian states, mainly due to the country's vast natural resources. Current issues include: diversifying the economy, obtaining membership in global and regional international economic institutions, enhancing Kazakhstan's economic competitiveness, and strengthening relations with neighboring states and foreign powers.

Present-day Turkmenistan covers territory that has been at the crossroads of civilizations for centuries. The area was ruled in antiquity by various Persian empires, and was conquered by Alexander the Great, Muslim armies, the Mongols, Turkic warriors, and eventually the Russians. In medieval times, Merv (located in present-day Mary province) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by Russia in the late 1800s, Turkmenistan later figured prominently in the anti-Bolshevik movement in Central Asia. In 1924, Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic; it achieved independence upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. President for Life Saparmyrat NYYAZOW died in December 2006, and Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW, a deputy chairman under NYYAZOW, emerged as the country's new president. BERDIMUHAMEDOW won Turkmenistan's first multi-candidate presidential election in February 2007, and again in 2012 and in 2017 with over 97% of the vote in both instances, in elections widely regarded as undemocratic.

Turkmenistan has sought new export markets for its extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves, which have yet to be fully exploited. As of late 2019, Turkmenistan exported the majority of its gas to China and small levels of gas were also being sent to Russia. Turkmenistan's reliance on gas exports has made the economy vulnerable to fluctuations in the global energy market, and economic hardships since the drop in energy prices in 2014 have led many Turkmenistanis to emigrate, mostly to Turkey.

Geography

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
LocationCentral Asia, northwest of China; a small portion west of the Ural (Zhayyq) River in easternmost EuropeCentral Asia, bordering the Caspian Sea, between Iran and Kazakhstan
Geographic coordinates48 00 N, 68 00 E40 00 N, 60 00 E
Map referencesAsiaAsia
Areatotal: 2,724,900 sq km

land: 2,699,700 sq km

water: 25,200 sq km
total: 488,100 sq km

land: 469,930 sq km

water: 18,170 sq km
Area - comparativeslightly less than four times the size of Texasslightly more than three times the size of Georgia; slightly larger than California
Land boundariestotal: 13,364 km

border countries (5): China 1765 km, Kyrgyzstan 1212 km, Russia 7644 km, Turkmenistan 413 km, Uzbekistan 2330 km
total: 4,158 km

border countries (4): Afghanistan 804 km, Iran 1148 km, Kazakhstan 413 km, Uzbekistan 1793 km
Coastline0 km (landlocked); note - Kazakhstan borders the Aral Sea, now split into two bodies of water (1,070 km), and the Caspian Sea (1,894 km)0 km (landlocked); note - Turkmenistan borders the Caspian Sea (1,768 km)
Maritime claimsnone (landlocked)none (landlocked)
Climatecontinental, cold winters and hot summers, arid and semiaridsubtropical desert
Terrainvast flat steppe extending from the Volga in the west to the Altai Mountains in the east and from the plains of western Siberia in the north to oases and deserts of Central Asia in the southflat-to-rolling sandy desert with dunes rising to mountains in the south; low mountains along border with Iran; borders Caspian Sea in west
Elevation extremeshighest point: Khan Tangiri Shyngy (Pik Khan-Tengri) 6,995 m

lowest point: Vpadina Kaundy -132 m

mean elevation: 387 m
highest point: Gora Ayribaba 3,139 m

lowest point: Vpadina Akchanaya (Sarygamysh Koli is a lake in northern Turkmenistan with a water level that fluctuates above and below the elevation of Vpadina Akchanaya, the lake has dropped as low as -110 m) -81 m

mean elevation: 230 m
Natural resourcesmajor deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, manganese, chrome ore, nickel, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, lead, zinc, bauxite, gold, uraniumpetroleum, natural gas, sulfur, salt
Land useagricultural land: 77.4% (2018 est.)

arable land: 8.9% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 0% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 68.5% (2018 est.)

forest: 1.2% (2018 est.)

other: 21.4% (2018 est.)
agricultural land: 72% (2018 est.)

arable land: 4.1% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 0.1% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 67.8% (2018 est.)

forest: 8.8% (2018 est.)

other: 19.2% (2018 est.)
Irrigated land20,660 sq km (2012)19,950 sq km (2012)
Natural hazardsearthquakes in the south; mudslides around Almatyearthquakes; mudslides; droughts; dust storms; floods
Environment - current issuesradioactive or toxic chemical sites associated with former defense industries and test ranges scattered throughout the country pose health risks for humans and animals; industrial pollution is severe in some cities; because the two main rivers that flowed into the Aral Sea have been diverted for irrigation, it is drying up and leaving behind a harmful layer of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then picked up by the wind and blown into noxious dust storms; pollution in the Caspian Sea; desertification; soil pollution from overuse of agricultural chemicals and salination from poor infrastructure and wasteful irrigation practicescontamination of soil and groundwater with agricultural chemicals, pesticides; salination, water logging of soil due to poor irrigation methods; Caspian Sea pollution; diversion of a large share of the flow of the Amu Darya into irrigation contributes to that river's inability to replenish the Aral Sea; soil erosion; desertification
Environment - international agreementsparty to: Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands

signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands

signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography - noteworld's largest landlocked country and one of only two landlocked countries in the world that extends into two continents (the other is Azerbaijan); Russia leases approximately 6,000 sq km of territory enclosing the Baykonur Cosmodrome; in January 2004, Kazakhstan and Russia extended the lease to 2050landlocked; the western and central low-lying desolate portions of the country make up the great Garagum (Kara-Kum) desert, which occupies over 80% of the country; eastern part is plateau
Total renewable water resources108.41 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)24.765 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)
Population distributionmost of the country displays a low population density, particularly the interior; population clusters appear in urban agglomerations in the far northern and southern portions of the countrythe most densely populated areas are the southern, eastern, and northeastern oases; approximately 50% of the population lives in and around the capital of Ashgabat

Demographics

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Population19,245,793 (July 2021 est.)5,579,889 (July 2021 est.)

note: some sources suggest Turkmenistan's population could be as much as 1 to 2 million people lower than available estimates because of large-scale emigration during the last 10 years
Age structure0-14 years: 26.13% (male 2,438,148/female 2,550,535)

15-24 years: 12.97% (male 1,262,766/female 1,212,645)

25-54 years: 42.23% (male 3,960,188/female 4,102,845)

55-64 years: 10.25% (male 856,180/female 1,099,923)

65 years and over: 8.43% (male 567,269/female 1,041,450) (2020 est.)
0-14 years: 25.44% (male 713,441/female 693,042)

15-24 years: 16.48% (male 458,566/female 452,469)

25-54 years: 44.14% (male 1,214,581/female 1,226,027)

55-64 years: 8.56% (male 221,935/female 251,238)

65 years and over: 5.38% (male 129,332/female 167,996) (2020 est.)
Median agetotal: 31.6 years

male: 30.3 years

female: 32.8 years (2020 est.)
total: 29.2 years

male: 28.7 years

female: 29.7 years (2020 est.)
Population growth rate0.81% (2021 est.)1.02% (2021 est.)
Birth rate15.87 births/1,000 population (2021 est.)17.85 births/1,000 population (2021 est.)
Death rate8.14 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.)5.95 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.)
Net migration rate0.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.)-1.72 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.)
Sex ratioat birth: 0.94 male(s)/female

0-14 years: 0.96 male(s)/female

15-24 years: 1.04 male(s)/female

25-54 years: 0.97 male(s)/female

55-64 years: 0.78 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.54 male(s)/female

total population: 0.91 male(s)/female (2020 est.)
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female

0-14 years: 1.03 male(s)/female

15-24 years: 1.01 male(s)/female

25-54 years: 0.99 male(s)/female

55-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.77 male(s)/female

total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2020 est.)
Infant mortality ratetotal: 19.59 deaths/1,000 live births

male: 22.18 deaths/1,000 live births

female: 17.17 deaths/1,000 live births (2021 est.)
total: 38.54 deaths/1,000 live births

male: 46.87 deaths/1,000 live births

female: 29.79 deaths/1,000 live births (2021 est.)
Life expectancy at birthtotal population: 72.25 years

male: 67.12 years

female: 77.06 years (2021 est.)
total population: 71.54 years

male: 68.5 years

female: 74.73 years (2021 est.)
Total fertility rate2.13 children born/woman (2021 est.)2.04 children born/woman (2021 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate0.3% (2020 est.)NA
Nationalitynoun: Kazakhstani(s)

adjective: Kazakhstani
noun: Turkmenistani(s)

adjective: Turkmenistani
Ethnic groupsKazakh (Qazaq) 68%, Russian 19.3%, Uzbek 3.2%, Ukrainian 1.5%, Uighur 1.5%, Tatar 1.1%, German 1%, other 4.4% (2019 est.)Turkmen 85%, Uzbek 5%, Russian 4%, other 6% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS35,000 (2020 est.)NA
ReligionsMuslim 70.2%, Christian 26.2% (mainly Russian Orthodox), other 0.2%, atheist 2.8%, unspecified 0.5% (2009 est.)Muslim 93%, Christian 6.4%, Buddhist <1%, folk religion <1%, Jewish <1%, other <1%, unspecified <1% (2020 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths<500 (2020 est.)NA
LanguagesKazakh (official, Qazaq) 83.1% (understand spoken language) and trilingual (Kazakh, Russian, English) 22.3% (2017 est.); Russian (official, used in everyday business, designated the "language of interethnic communication") 94.4% (understand spoken language) (2009 est.)

major-language sample(s):
??????? ???????? ??????, ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ????. (Kazakh)

????? ?????? ? ???? - ??????????? ????????  ??????? ??????????. (Russian)

The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.
Turkmen (official) 72%, Russian 12%, Uzbek 9%, other 7%

major-language sample(s):
Dünyä Facebooky, esasy maglumat üçin ayrylmaz bir çesme dir. (Turkmen)

The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.
Literacydefinition: age 15 and over can read and write

total population: 99.8%

male: 99.8%

female: 99.8% (2015)
definition: age 15 and over can read and write

total population: 99.7%

male: 99.8%

female: 99.6% (2015)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)total: 16 years

male: 15 years

female: 16 years (2019)
total: 13 years

male: 13 years

female: 13 years (2019)
Education expenditures2.6% of GDP (2018)3.1% of GDP (2012)
Urbanizationurban population: 57.8% of total population (2021)

rate of urbanization: 1.19% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
urban population: 53% of total population (2021)

rate of urbanization: 2.23% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Drinking water sourceimproved: urban: 100% of population

rural: 93.8% of population

total: 97.4% of population

unimproved: urban: 0% of population

rural: 6.2% of population

total: 2.6% of population (2017 est.)
improved: urban: 100% of population

rural: 100% of population

total: 100% of population

unimproved: urban: 0% of population

rural: 0% of population

total: 0% of population (2017 est.)
Sanitation facility accessimproved: urban: 99.9% of population

rural: 100% of population

total: 99.9% of population

unimproved: urban: 0.1% of population

rural: 0% of population

total: 0.1% of population (2017 est.)
improved: urban: 100% of population

rural: 100% of population

total: 100% of population

unimproved: urban: 0% of population

rural: 0% of population

total: 0% of population (2017 est.)
Major cities - population1.928 million Almaty, 1.212 million NUR-SULTAN (capital), 1.093 million Shimkent (2021)865,000 ASHGABAT (capital) (2021)
Maternal mortality rate10 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.)7 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.)
Children under the age of 5 years underweight2% (2015)3.1% (2019)
Health expenditures2.9% (2018)6.6% (2018)
Physicians density3.98 physicians/1,000 population (2014)2.23 physicians/1,000 population (2014)
Hospital bed density6.1 beds/1,000 population (2014)4 beds/1,000 population (2014)
Obesity - adult prevalence rate21% (2016)18.6% (2016)
Mother's mean age at first birth28.9 years (2019 est.)24.2 years (2019)
Contraceptive prevalence rate53% (2018)

note: percent of women aged 18-49
49.7% (2019)
Dependency ratiostotal dependency ratio: 58.8

youth dependency ratio: 46.3

elderly dependency ratio: 12.6

potential support ratio: 8 (2020 est.)
total dependency ratio: 55.2

youth dependency ratio: 47.8

elderly dependency ratio: 7.4

potential support ratio: 13.5 (2020 est.)

Government

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Country nameconventional long form: Republic of Kazakhstan

conventional short form: Kazakhstan

local long form: Qazaqstan Respublikasy

local short form: Qazaqstan

former: Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic

etymology: the name "Kazakh" derives from the Turkic word "kaz" meaning "to wander," recalling the Kazakh's nomadic lifestyle; the Persian suffix "-stan" means "place of" or "country," so the word Kazakhstan literally means "Land of the Wanderers"
conventional long form: none

conventional short form: Turkmenistan

local long form: none

local short form: Turkmenistan

former: Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic

etymology: the suffix "-stan" means "place of" or "country," so Turkmenistan literally means the "Land of the Turkmen [people]"
Government typepresidential republicpresidential republic; authoritarian
Capitalname: Nur-Sultan

geographic coordinates: 51 10 N, 71 25 E

time difference: UTC+6 (11 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)

note: Kazakhstan has two time zones

etymology: on 20 March 2019, Kazakhstan changed the name of its capital city from Astana to Nur-Sultan in honor of its long-serving, recently retired president, Nursultan NAZARBAYEV; this was not the first time the city had its name changed; founded in 1830 as Akmoly, it became Akmolinsk in 1832, Tselinograd in 1961, Akmola (Aqmola) in 1992, and Astana in 1998
name: Ashgabat (Ashkhabad)

geographic coordinates: 37 57 N, 58 23 E

time difference: UTC+5 (10 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)

etymology: derived from the Persian words "eshq" meaning "love" and "abad" meaning "inhabited place" or "city," and so loosely translates as "the city of love" 
Administrative divisions14 provinces (oblyslar, singular - oblys) and 4 cities* (qalalar, singular - qala); Almaty (Taldyqorghan), Almaty*, Aqmola (Kokshetau), Aqtobe, Atyrau, Batys Qazaqstan [West Kazakhstan] (Oral), Bayqongyr*, Mangghystau (Aqtau), Nur-Sultan*, Pavlodar, Qaraghandy, Qostanay, Qyzylorda, Shyghys Qazaqstan [East Kazakhstan] (Oskemen), Shymkent*, Soltustik Qazaqstan [North Kazakhstan] (Petropavl), Turkistan, Zhambyl (Taraz)

note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses); in 1995, the Governments of Kazakhstan and Russia entered into an agreement whereby Russia would lease for a period of 20 years an area of 6,000 sq km enclosing the Baikonur space launch facilities and the city of Bayqongyr (Baikonur, formerly Leninsk); in 2004, a new agreement extended the lease to 2050
5 provinces (welayatlar, singular - welayat) and 1 independent city*: Ahal Welayaty (Anew), Ashgabat*, Balkan Welayaty (Balkanabat), Dasoguz Welayaty, Lebap Welayaty (Turkmenabat), Mary Welayaty

note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses)
Independence16 December 1991 (from the Soviet Union)27 October 1991 (from the Soviet Union)
National holidayIndependence Day, 16 December (1991)Independence Day, 27 October (1991)
Constitutionhistory: previous 1937, 1978 (preindependence), 1993; latest approved by referendum 30 August 1995, effective 5 September 1995

amendments: introduced by a referendum initiated by the president of the republic, on the recommendation of Parliament, or by the government; the president has the option of submitting draft amendments to Parliament or directly to a referendum; passage of amendments by Parliament requires four-fifths majority vote of both houses and the signature of the president; passage by referendum requires absolute majority vote by more than one half of the voters in at least two thirds of the oblasts, major cities, and the capital, followed by the signature of the president; amended several times, last in 2019
history: several previous; latest adopted 14 September 2016

amendments: proposed by the National Assembly; passage requires two-thirds majority vote of the total Assembly membership or absolute majority approval in a referendum; amended several times, last in 2020 (changed parliament to bicameral)
Legal systemcivil law system influenced by Roman-Germanic law and by the theory and practice of the Russian Federationcivil law system with Islamic (sharia) law influences
Suffrage18 years of age; universal18 years of age; universal
Executive branchchief of state:  President Kasym-Zhomart TOKAYEV (since 20 March 2019); note - Nursultan NAZARBAYEV, who was president since 24 April 1990 (and in power since 22 June 1989 under the Soviet period), resigned on 20 March 2019; NAZARBAYEV retained the title and powers of "First President"; TOKAYEV completed NAZARBAYEV's term, which was shortened due to the early election of 9 June 2019, and then continued as president following his election victory 

head of government: Prime Minister Askar MAMIN (since 25 February 2019); First Deputy Prime Minister Alikhan SMAILOV (since 25 February 2019); Deputy Prime Ministers Berdibek SAPARBAYEV and Roman SKLYAR (since 18 September 2019) 

cabinet:  the president appoints ministers after consultations with the Chair of the Security Council (NAZARBAYEV) who has veto power over all appointments except for the ministers of defense, internal affairs, and foreign affairs; however, the president is required to discuss these three offices with the National Security Committee, which NAZARBAYEV chairs under a lifetime appointment 

elections/appointments: president directly elected by simple majority popular vote for a 5-year term (eligible for a second consecutive term); election last held on 9 June 2019 (next to be held in 2024); prime minister and deputy prime ministers appointed by the president, approved by the Mazhilis

election results: Kasym-Zhomart TOKAYEV elected president; percent of vote - Kassym-Jomart TOKAYEV (Nur Otan) 71%, Amirzhan KOSANOV (Ult Tagdyry) 16.2%, Daniya YESPAYEVA (Ak Zhol) 5.1%, other 7.7%
chief of state: President Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW (since 14 February 2007); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government

head of government: President Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW (since 14 February 2007)

cabinet: Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the president

elections/appointments: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote in 2 rounds if needed for a 7-year term (no term limits); election last held on 12 February 2017 (next to be held in February 2024)

election results: Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW reelected president in the first round; percent of vote - Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW (DPT) 97.7%, other 2.3%
Legislative branchdescription: bicameral Parliament consists of:
Senate (49 seats; 34 members indirectly elected by 2-round majority vote by the oblast-level assemblies and 15 members appointed by decree of the president; members serve 6-year terms, with one-half of the membership renewed every 3 years)
Mazhilis (107 seats; 98 members directly elected in a single national constituency by proportional representation vote to serve 5-year terms and 9 indirectly elected by the Assembly of People of Kazakhstan, a 351-member, presidentially appointed advisory body designed to represent the country's ethnic minorities)

elections:
Senate - last held on 12 August 2020 (next to be held in 2026)
Mazhilis - last held on 10 January 2021 (next to be held in 2026)

election results:  
Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; composition - men 42, women 5, percent of women 10.6%
Mazhilis - percent of vote by party - Nur Otan 71.1%, Ak Zhol 11%, People's Party 9.1%, other 8.8%; seats by party - Nur Otan 76, Ak Zhol 12, People's Party 10; composition - men 78, women 29, percent of women 27%
description: note: in September 2020, the Turkmenistan Parliament adopted a constitutional amendment creating an upper chamber, making the Parliament bicameral
bicameral National Council or Khalk Maslakhaty consists of:
People's Council (56 seats; 48 members indirectly elected by provincial councils and 8 members appointed by the president)
Assembly or Mejlis Hakynda (125 seats; members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by absolute majority vote in 2 rounds if needed to serve 5-year terms)

elections: People's Council - first held on 25 March 2021 for 48 indirectly elected members (next to be held in 2026); first held on 14 April 2021 for 8 presidentially appointed members (next to be held NA)
Assembly - last held on 25 March 2018 (next to be held in 2026)

election results: People's Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - DPT 3, independent 45
Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - DPT 55, APT 11, PIE 11, independent 48 (individuals nominated by citizen groups); composition - men 94, women 31, percent of women 24.8%
Judicial branchhighest courts: Supreme Court of the Republic (consists of 44 members); Constitutional Council (consists of the chairman and 6 members)

judge selection and term of office: Supreme Court judges proposed by the president of the republic on recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council and confirmed by the Senate; judges normally serve until age 65 but can be extended to age 70; Constitutional Council - the president of the republic, the Senate chairperson, and the Mazhilis chairperson each appoints 2 members for a 6-year term; chairman of the Constitutional Council appointed by the president for a 6-year term

subordinate courts: regional and local courts
highest courts: Supreme Court of Turkmenistan (consists of the court president and 21 associate judges and organized into civil, criminal, and military chambers)

judge selection and term of office: judges appointed by the president for 5-year terms

subordinate courts: High Commercial Court; appellate courts; provincial, district, and city courts; military courts
Political parties and leadersAk Zhol (Bright Path) Party or Democratic Party of Kazakhstan Ak Zhol [Azat PERUASHEV]
Birlik (Unity) Party [Serik SULTANGALI]
National Social Democratic Party or NSDP [Zharmakhan TUYAKBAY]
Nur Otan (Radiant Fatherland) Democratic People's Party [Nursultan NAZARBAYEV]
People's Democratic (Patriotic) Party "Auyl" [Ali BEKTAYEV]
People's Party of Kazakhstan [informal leader Aikyn KONUROV]
Ult Tagdyry (Conscience of the Nation)
Agrarian Party of Turkmenistan or APT [Basim ANNAGURBANOW]
Democratic Party of Turkmenistan or DPT [Ata SERDAROW]
Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs or PIE [Saparmyrat OWGANOW]

note: all of these parties support President BERDIMUHAMEDOW; a law authorizing the registration of political parties went into effect in January 2012; unofficial, small opposition movements exist abroad
International organization participationADB, CICA, CIS, CSTO, EAEU, EAPC, EBRD, ECO, EITI (compliant country), FAO, GCTU, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (NGOs), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, MIGA, MINURSO, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, SCO, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UN Security Council (temporary), UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (observer), ZCADB, CIS (associate member, has not ratified the 1993 CIS charter although it participates in meetings and held the chairmanship of the CIS in 2012), EAPC, EBRD, ECO, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO
Diplomatic representation in the USchief of mission:

Ambassador Yerzhan ASHIKBAYEV (since 7 July 2021)



chancery: 1401 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036

telephone: [1] (202) 232-5488

FAX: [1] (202) 232-5845

email address and website:
washington@mfa.kz

https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/mfa-washington?lang=en

consulate(s) general: New York

chief of mission: Ambassador Meret ORAZOW (since 14 February 2001)

chancery: 2207 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008

telephone: [1] (202) 588-1500

FAX: [1] (202) 588-1500

email address and website:
turkmenembassyus@verizon.net

https://usa.tmembassy.gov.tm/en
Diplomatic representation from the USchief of mission: Ambassador William MOSER (since 27 March 2019)

embassy: Rakhymzhan Koshkarbayev Avenue, No. 3, Nur-Sultan 010010

mailing address: 2230 Astana Place, Washington DC  20521-2230

telephone: [7] (7172) 70-21-00

FAX: [7] (7172) 54-09-14

email address and website:
USAKZ@state.gov

https://kz.usembassy.gov/

consulate(s) general: Almaty
chief of mission: Ambassador Matthew S. KLIMOW (since 26 June 2019)

embassy: 9 1984 Street (formerly Pushkin Street), Ashgabat 744000

mailing address: 7070 Ashgabat Place, Washington, DC 20521-7070

telephone: [993] (12) 94-00-45

FAX: [993] (12) 94-26-14

email address and website:
ConsularAshgab@state.gov

https://tm.usembassy.gov/
Flag descriptiona gold sun with 32 rays above a soaring golden steppe eagle, both centered on a sky blue background; the hoist side displays a national ornamental pattern "koshkar-muiz" (the horns of the ram) in gold; the blue color is of religious significance to the Turkic peoples of the country, and so symbolizes cultural and ethnic unity; it also represents the endless sky as well as water; the sun, a source of life and energy, exemplifies wealth and plenitude; the sun's rays are shaped like grain, which is the basis of abundance and prosperity; the eagle has appeared on the flags of Kazakh tribes for centuries and represents freedom, power, and the flight to the futuregreen field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five tribal guls (designs used in producing carpets) stacked above two crossed olive branches; five white, five-pointed stars and a white crescent moon appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe; the green color and crescent moon represent Islam; the five stars symbolize the regions or welayats of Turkmenistan; the guls reflect the national identity of Turkmenistan where carpet-making has long been a part of traditional nomadic life

note: the flag of Turkmenistan is the most intricate of all national flags
National anthemname: "Menin Qazaqstanim" (My Kazakhstan)

lyrics/music: Zhumeken NAZHIMEDENOV and Nursultan NAZARBAYEV/Shamshi KALDAYAKOV

note: adopted 2006; President Nursultan NAZARBAYEV played a role in revising the lyrics
name: "Garassyz, Bitarap Turkmenistanyn" (Independent, Neutral, Turkmenistan State Anthem)

lyrics/music: collective/Veli MUKHATOV

note: adopted 1997, lyrics revised in 2008, to eliminate references to deceased President Saparmurat NYYAZOW
International law organization participationhas not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCthas not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt
National symbol(s)golden eagle; national colors: blue, yellowAkhal-Teke horse; national colors: green, white
Citizenshipcitizenship by birth: no

citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Kazakhstan

dual citizenship recognized: no

residency requirement for naturalization: 5 years
citizenship by birth: no

citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Turkmenistan

dual citizenship recognized: yes

residency requirement for naturalization: 7 years

Economy

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Economy - overview

Kazakhstan's vast hydrocarbon and mineral reserves form the backbone of its economy. Geographically the largest of the former Soviet republics, excluding Russia, Kazakhstan, g possesses substantial fossil fuel reserves and other minerals and metals, such as uranium, copper, and zinc. It also has a large agricultural sector featuring livestock and grain. The government realizes that its economy suffers from an overreliance on oil and extractive industries and has made initial attempts to diversify its economy by targeting sectors like transport, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications, petrochemicals and food processing for greater development and investment. It also adopted a Subsoil Code in December 2017 with the aim of increasing exploration and investment in the hydrocarbon, and particularly mining, sectors.

Kazakhstan's oil production and potential is expanding rapidly. A $36.8 billion expansion of Kazakhstan's premiere Tengiz oil field by Chevron-led Tengizchevroil should be complete in 2022. Meanwhile, the super-giant Kashagan field finally launched production in October 2016 after years of delay and an estimated $55 billion in development costs. Kazakhstan's total oil production in 2017 climbed 10.5%.

Kazakhstan is landlocked and depends on Russia to export its oil to Europe. It also exports oil directly to China. In 2010, Kazakhstan joined Russia and Belarus to establish a Customs Union in an effort to boost foreign investment and improve trade. The Customs Union evolved into a Single Economic Space in 2012 and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) in January 2015. Supported by rising commodity prices, Kazakhstan's exports to EAEU countries increased 30.2% in 2017. Imports from EAEU countries grew by 24.1%.

The economic downturn of its EAEU partner, Russia, and the decline in global commodity prices from 2014 to 2016 contributed to an economic slowdown in Kazakhstan. In 2014, Kazakhstan devalued its currency, the tenge, and announced a stimulus package to cope with its economic challenges. In the face of further decline in the ruble, oil prices, and the regional economy, Kazakhstan announced in 2015 it would replace its currency band with a floating exchange rate, leading to a sharp fall in the value of the tenge. Since reaching a low of 391 to the dollar in January 2016, the tenge has modestly appreciated, helped by somewhat higher oil prices. While growth slowed to about 1% in both 2015 and 2016, a moderate recovery in oil prices, relatively stable inflation and foreign exchange rates, and the start of production at Kashagan helped push 2017 GDP growth to 4%.

Despite some positive institutional and legislative changes in the last several years, investors remain concerned about corruption, bureaucracy, and arbitrary law enforcement, especially at the regional and municipal levels. An additional concern is the condition of the country's banking sector, which suffers from poor asset quality and a lack of transparency. Investors also question the potentially negative effects on the economy of a contested presidential succession as Kazakhstan's first president, Nursultan NAZARBAYEV, turned 77 in 2017.

Turkmenistan is largely a desert country with intensive agriculture in irrigated oases and significant natural gas and oil resources. The two largest crops are cotton, most of which is produced for export, and wheat, which is domestically consumed. Although agriculture accounts for almost 8% of GDP, it continues to employ nearly half of the country's workforce. Hydrocarbon exports, the bulk of which is natural gas going to China, make up 25% of Turkmenistan's GDP. Ashgabat has explored two initiatives to bring gas to new markets: a trans-Caspian pipeline that would carry gas to Europe and the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India gas pipeline. Both face major financing, political, and security hurdles and are unlikely to be completed soon.

Turkmenistan's autocratic governments under presidents NIYAZOW (1991-2006) and BERDIMUHAMEDOW (since 2007) have made little progress improving the business climate, privatizing state-owned industries, combatting corruption, and limiting economic development outside the energy sector. High energy prices in the mid-2000s allowed the government to undertake extensive development and social spending, including providing heavy utility subsidies.

Low energy prices since mid-2014 are hampering Turkmenistan's economic growth and reducing government revenues. The government has cut subsidies in several areas, and wage arrears have increased. In January 2014, the Central Bank of Turkmenistan devalued the manat by 19%, and downward pressure on the currency continues. There is a widening spread between the official exchange rate (3.5 TMM per US dollar) and the black market exchange rate (approximately 14 TMM per US dollar). Currency depreciation and conversion restrictions, corruption, isolationist policies, and declining spending on public services have resulted in a stagnate economy that is nearing crisis. Turkmenistan claims substantial foreign currency reserves, but non-transparent data limit international institutions' ability to verify this information.

GDP (purchasing power parity)$487.868 billion (2019 est.)

$466.859 billion (2018 est.)

$448.472 billion (2017 est.)

note: data are in 2010 dollars
$86.858 billion (2018 est.)

$103.7 billion (2017 est.)

$81.787 billion (2017 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars
GDP - real growth rate6.13% (2019 est.)

4.41% (2018 est.)

4.38% (2017 est.)
6.5% (2017 est.)

6.2% (2016 est.)

6.5% (2015 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP)$26,351 (2019 est.)

$25,544 (2018 est.)

$24,863 (2017 est.)

note: data are in 2010 dollars
$14,845 (2018 est.)

$18,200 (2017 est.)

$14,205 (2017 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars
GDP - composition by sectoragriculture: 4.7% (2017 est.)

industry: 34.1% (2017 est.)

services: 61.2% (2017 est.)
agriculture: 7.5% (2017 est.)

industry: 44.9% (2017 est.)

services: 47.7% (2017 est.)
Population below poverty line4.3% (2018 est.)0.2% (2012 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage sharelowest 10%: 4.2%

highest 10%: 23.3% (2016)
lowest 10%: 2.6%

highest 10%: 31.7% (1998)
Inflation rate (consumer prices)5.2% (2019 est.)

6% (2018 est.)

7.3% (2017 est.)
8% (2017 est.)

3.6% (2016 est.)
Labor force8.685 million (2020 est.)2.305 million (2013 est.)
Labor force - by occupationagriculture: 18.1%

industry: 20.4%

services: 61.6% (2017 est.)
agriculture: 48.2%

industry: 14%

services: 37.8% (2004 est.)
Unemployment rate4.8% (2019 est.)

4.85% (2018 est.)
11% (2014 est.)

10.6% (2013)
Distribution of family income - Gini index27.5 (2017 est.)

31.5 (2003)
40.8 (1998)
Budgetrevenues: 35.48 billion (2017 est.)

expenditures: 38.3 billion (2017 est.)
revenues: 5.657 billion (2017 est.)

expenditures: 6.714 billion (2017 est.)
Industriesoil, coal, iron ore, manganese, chromite, lead, zinc, copper, titanium, bauxite, gold, silver, phosphates, sulfur, uranium, iron and steel; tractors and other agricultural machinery, electric motors, construction materialsnatural gas, oil, petroleum products, textiles, food processing
Industrial production growth rate5.8% (2017 est.)1% (2017 est.)
Agriculture - productswheat, milk, potatoes, barley, watermelons, melons, linseed, onions, maize, sunflower seedmilk, wheat, cotton, tomatoes, potatoes, watermelons, grapes, sugar beet, beef, rice
Exports$76.455 billion (2019 est.)

$74.809 billion (2018 est.)

$68.256 billion (2017 est.)
$7.458 billion (2017 est.)

$6.987 billion (2016 est.)
Exports - commoditiescrude petroleum, natural gas, copper, iron alloys, radioactive chemicals (2019)natural gas, refined petroleum, crude petroleum, cotton fibers, fertilizers (2019)
Exports - partnersChina 13%, Italy 12%, Russia 10%, Netherlands 7%, France 6%, South Korea 5% (2019)China 82% (2019)
Imports$69.117 billion (2019 est.)

$61.933 billion (2018 est.)

$58.099 billion (2017 est.)
$4.571 billion (2017 est.)

$5.215 billion (2016 est.)
Imports - commoditiespackaged medicines, natural gas, cars, broadcasting equipment, aircraft (2019)iron products, harvesting machinery, packaged medicines, broadcasting equipment, tractors (2019)
Imports - partnersRussia 34%, China 24% (2019)Turkey 25%, Russia 18%, China 14%, Germany 6% (2019)
Debt - external$159.351 billion (2019 est.)

$163.73 billion (2018 est.)
$539.4 million (31 December 2017 est.)

$425.3 million (31 December 2016 est.)
Exchange ratestenge (KZT) per US dollar -

420.0049 (2020 est.)

385.9248 (2019 est.)

370.4648 (2018 est.)

221.73 (2014 est.)

179.19 (2013 est.)
Turkmenistani manat (TMM) per US dollar -

4.125 (2017 est.)

3.5 (2016 est.)

3.5 (2015 est.)

3.5 (2014 est.)

2.85 (2013 est.)
Fiscal yearcalendar yearcalendar year
Public debt20.8% of GDP (2017 est.)

19.7% of GDP (2016 est.)
28.8% of GDP (2017 est.)

24.1% of GDP (2016 est.)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold$30.75 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$29.53 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
$24.91 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$25.05 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
Current Account Balance-$7.206 billion (2019 est.)

-$138 million (2018 est.)
-$4.359 billion (2017 est.)

-$7.207 billion (2016 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate)$181.194 billion (2019 est.)$40.819 billion (2018 est.)
Taxes and other revenues22.3% (of GDP) (2017 est.)14.9% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-)-1.8% (of GDP) (2017 est.)-2.8% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
GDP - composition, by end usehousehold consumption: 53.2% (2017 est.)

government consumption: 11.1% (2017 est.)

investment in fixed capital: 22.5% (2017 est.)

investment in inventories: 4.8% (2017 est.)

exports of goods and services: 35.4% (2017 est.)

imports of goods and services: -27.1% (2017 est.)
household consumption: 50% (2017 est.)

government consumption: 10% (2017 est.)

investment in fixed capital: 28.2% (2017 est.)

investment in inventories: 0% (2017 est.)

exports of goods and services: 26.2% (2017 est.)

imports of goods and services: -14.3% (2017 est.)
Gross national saving26.6% of GDP (2019 est.)

27.8% of GDP (2018 est.)

25.9% of GDP (2017 est.)
23.9% of GDP (2017 est.)

24.3% of GDP (2016 est.)

18.9% of GDP (2015 est.)

Energy

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Electricity - production100.8 billion kWh (2016 est.)21.18 billion kWh (2016 est.)
Electricity - consumption94.23 billion kWh (2016 est.)15.09 billion kWh (2016 est.)
Electricity - exports5.1 billion kWh (2017 est.)3.201 billion kWh (2015 est.)
Electricity - imports1.318 billion kWh (2016 est.)0 kWh (2016 est.)
Oil - production1.856 million bbl/day (2018 est.)244,000 bbl/day (2018 est.)
Oil - imports1,480 bbl/day (2015 est.)0 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Oil - exports1.409 million bbl/day (2015 est.)67,790 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Oil - proved reserves30 billion bbl (1 January 2018 est.)600 million bbl (1 January 2018 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves2.407 trillion cu m (1 January 2018 est.)7.504 trillion cu m (1 January 2018 est.)
Natural gas - production22.41 billion cu m (2017 est.)77.45 billion cu m (2017 est.)
Natural gas - consumption15.37 billion cu m (2017 est.)39.31 billion cu m (2017 est.)
Natural gas - exports12.8 billion cu m (2017 est.)38.14 billion cu m (2017 est.)
Natural gas - imports5.748 billion cu m (2017 est.)0 cu m (2017 est.)
Electricity - installed generating capacity20.15 million kW (2016 est.)4.001 million kW (2016 est.)
Electricity - from fossil fuels86% of total installed capacity (2016 est.)100% of total installed capacity (2016 est.)
Electricity - from hydroelectric plants14% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)
Electricity - from nuclear fuels0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)
Electricity - from other renewable sources1% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)
Refined petroleum products - production290,700 bbl/day (2015 est.)191,100 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Refined petroleum products - consumption274,000 bbl/day (2016 est.)160,000 bbl/day (2016 est.)
Refined petroleum products - exports105,900 bbl/day (2015 est.)53,780 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Refined petroleum products - imports39,120 bbl/day (2015 est.)0 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Electricity accesselectrification - total population: 100% (2020)electrification - total population: 100% (2020)

Telecommunications

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Telephones - main lines in usetotal subscriptions: 3,072,500

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 16.24 (2019 est.)
total subscriptions: 648,223

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 11.85 (2019 est.)
Telephones - mobile cellulartotal subscriptions: 25,717,700

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 135.96 (2019 est.)
total subscriptions: 8,908,821

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 162.86 (2019 est.)
Internet country code.kz.tm
Internet userstotal: 14,789,448

percent of population: 78.9% (July 2018 est.)
total: 1,149,840

percent of population: 21.25% (July 2018 est.)
Telecommunication systemsgeneral assessment:

one of the most progressive telecom sectors in Central Asia; vast 4G network; low fixed-line and fixed-broadband penetration; moderate mobile broadband penetration and high mobile penetration; mobile market highly competitive and growth is slow due to saturation (2020)

(2020)

domestic: intercity by landline and microwave radio relay; number of fixed-line connections is 17 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular usage increased rapidly and the subscriber base approaches 139 per 100 persons (2019)

international: country code - 7; international traffic with other former Soviet republics and China carried by landline and microwave radio relay and with other countries by satellite and by the TAE fiber-optic cable; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat

note: the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a significant impact on production and supply chains globally; since 2020, some aspects of the telecom sector have experienced downturn, particularly in mobile device production; many network operators delayed upgrades to infrastructure; progress towards 5G implementation was postponed or slowed in some countries; consumer spending on telecom services and devices was affected by large-scale job losses and the consequent restriction on disposable incomes; the crucial nature of telecom services as a tool for work and school from home became evident, and received some support from governments

general assessment:

stagnant economy, rural geography, and authoritarian rule limit development of the telecom sector; in cooperation with Russian-based partners, operators have installed high-speed fiber-optic lines and upgraded most of the country's telephone switch centers with digital technology; some rural areas lack fixed-line coverage; mobile broadband is in the early stages of development; services are extremely slow, though Trans-Caspian cable will provide international Internet capacity and improvement in services; freedom of press and expression restricted through monitoring, media interruption, and removal of receivers from households; importer of broadcasting equipment from UAE (2021)

(2020)

domestic: fixed-line 12 per 100 and mobile-cellular teledensity is about 163 per 100 persons; first telecommunication satellite was launched in 2015 (2019)

international: country code - 993; linked by fiber-optic cable and microwave radio relay to other CIS republics and to other countries by leased connections to the Moscow international gateway switch; an exchange in Ashgabat switches international traffic through Turkey via Intelsat; satellite earth stations - 1 Orbita and 1 Intelsat (2018)

note: the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a significant impact on production and supply chains globally; since 2020, some aspects of the telecom sector have experienced downturn, particularly in mobile device production; many network operators delayed upgrades to infrastructure; progress towards 5G implementation was postponed or slowed in some countries; consumer spending on telecom services and devices was affected by large-scale job losses and the consequent restriction on disposable incomes; the crucial nature of telecom services as a tool for work and school from home became evident, and received some support from governments

Broadband - fixed subscriptionstotal: 2,511,100

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 13.28 (2019 est.)
total: 4,000

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: less than 1 (2017 est.)
Broadcast mediathe state owns nearly all radio and TV transmission facilities and operates national TV and radio networks; there are 96 TV channels, many of which are owned by the government, and 4 state-run radio stations; some former state-owned media outlets have been privatized; households with satellite dishes have access to foreign media; a small number of commercial radio stations operate along with state-run radio stations; recent legislation requires all media outlets to register with the government and all TV providers to broadcast in digital format by 2018; broadcasts reach some 99% of the population as well as neighboring countriesbroadcast media is government controlled and censored; 7 state-owned TV and 4 state-owned radio networks; satellite dishes and programming provide an alternative to the state-run media; officials sometimes limit access to satellite TV by removing satellite dishes

Transportation

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Railwaystotal: 16,614 km (2017)

broad gauge: 16,614 km 1.520-m gauge (4,200 km electrified) (2017)
total: 5,113 km (2017)

broad gauge: 5,113 km 1.520-m gauge (2017)
Roadwaystotal: 95,409 km (2017)

paved: 81,814 km (2017)

unpaved: 13,595 km (2017)
total: 58,592 km (2002)

paved: 47,577 km (2002)

unpaved: 11,015 km (2002)
Waterways4,000 km (on the Ertis (Irtysh) River (80%) and Syr Darya (Syrdariya) River) (2010)1,300 km (Amu Darya River and Kara Kum Canal are important inland waterways) (2011)
Pipelines658 km condensate, 15,256 km gas (2017), 8,013 km oil (2017), 1,095 km refined products, 1,975 km water (2016) (2017)7500 km gas, 1501 km oil (2013)
Ports and terminalsmajor seaport(s): Caspian Sea - Aqtau (Shevchenko), Atyrau (Gur'yev)

river port(s): Oskemen (Ust-Kamenogorsk), Pavlodar, Semey (Semipalatinsk) (Irtysh River)
major seaport(s): Caspian Sea - Turkmenbasy
Merchant marinetotal: 128

by type: general cargo 3, oil tanker 8, other 117 (2020)
total: 68

by type: general cargo 6, oil tanker 8, other 54 (2020)
Airportstotal: 96 (2013)total: 26 (2013)
Airports - with paved runwaystotal: 63 (2017)

over 3,047 m: 10 (2017)

2,438 to 3,047 m: 25 (2017)

1,524 to 2,437 m: 15 (2017)

914 to 1,523 m: 5 (2017)

under 914 m: 8 (2017)
total: 21 (2013)

over 3,047 m: 1 (2013)

2,438 to 3,047 m: 9 (2013)

1,524 to 2,437 m: 9 (2013)

914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2013)
Airports - with unpaved runwaystotal: 33 (2013)

over 3,047 m: 5 (2013)

2,438 to 3,047 m: 7 (2013)

1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 (2013)

914 to 1,523 m: 5 (2013)

under 914 m: 13 (2013)
total: 5 (2013)

1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2013)

under 914 m: 4 (2013)
Heliports3 (2013)1 (2013)
National air transport systemnumber of registered air carriers: 12 (2020)

inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 84

annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 7,143,797 (2018)

annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 50.22 million mt-km (2018)
number of registered air carriers: 1 (2020)

inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 27

annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 2,457,474 (2018)

annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 16.92 million mt-km (2018)
Civil aircraft registration country code prefixUPEZ

Military

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Military branchesArmed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air and Air Defense Forces; Ministry of Internal Affairs: National Guard, Border Service (includes Coast Guard), State Security Service (2021)Armed Forces of Turkmenistan: National Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces; Federal Border Guard Service (2021)
Military service age and obligationAll men 18-27 are required to serve in the military for at least one year. (2019)18-27 years of age for compulsory male military service; 2-year conscript service obligation; 20 years of age for voluntary service; males may enroll in military schools from age 15 (2019)
Military expenditures - percent of GDP1.1% of GDP (2019)

0.9% of GDP (2018)

0.9% of GDP (2017)

0.9% of GDP (2016)

1.1% of GDP (2015)
1.8% of GDP (2017)

1.7% of GDP (2016)

1.5% of GDP (2015)

1.3% of GDP (2014)

1.2% of GDP (2013)
Military and security service personnel strengthsinformation varies; approximately 45,000 active duty personnel (30,000 Land Forces; 3,000 Naval Forces; 12,000 Air and Air Defense Forces) (2020)information varies; estimated 35,000 active troops (est. 30,000 National Army; 1,000 Navy; 4,000 Air and Air Defense Forces) (2020)
Military equipment inventories and acquisitionsthe Kazakh military's inventory is comprised of mostly older Russian and Soviet-era equipment; since 2010, Russia remains by far the leading supplier of weapons systems (2020)the inventory for Turkmenistan's military is comprised almost entirely of older Russian and Soviet-era weapons systems, although in recent years, Turkmenistan has opened itself up to equipment from other countries; since 2010, China, Russia, and Turkey are the leading arms suppliers to Turkmenistan (2020)

Transnational Issues

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Disputes - international

in January 2019, the Kyrgyz Republic ratified the demarcation agreement of the Kazakh-Kyrgyz border; the demarcation of the Kazakh-Uzbek borders is ongoing; the ongoing demarcation with Russia began in 2007; demarcation with China completed in 2002

cotton monoculture in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan creates water-sharing difficulties for Amu Darya river states; field demarcation of the boundaries with Kazakhstan commenced in 2005; bilateral talks continue with Azerbaijan on dividing the seabed and contested oilfields in the middle of the Caspian

Illicit drugssignificant illicit cultivation of cannabis for CIS markets, as well as limited cultivation of opium poppy and ephedra (for the drug ephedrine); limited government eradication of illicit crops; transit point for Southwest Asian narcotics bound for Russia and the rest of Europe; significant consumer of opiatestransit country for Afghan narcotics bound for Russian and Western European markets; transit point for heroin precursor chemicals bound for Afghanistan
Refugees and internally displaced personsstateless persons: 7,999 (2020)stateless persons: 3,924 (2020)
Trafficking in personscurrent situation: human traffickers exploit domestic and foreign victims in Kazakhstan and Kazakhstanis abroad; traffickers lure victims from rural areas to larger cities with fake offers of employment; traffickers coerce or force Kazakhstani men and women into labor in Russia, Bahrain, Brazil, the Republic of Korea, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates; sex traffickers exploit Kazakhstani women and girls in the Middle East, Europe, East Asia, the United States, Central Asian and Eastern European countries and rural areas in Kazakhstan; children are forced to beg and adults and children may be coerced into criminal behavior; traffickers are increasingly using debt-based coercion; traffickers capitalize on tough law enforcement policies on migrants to coerce them to remain and leverage these policies to threaten victims with punishment and deportation if they notify authorities, which fosters a distrust in law enforcement

tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - Kazakhstan does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but is making significant efforts to do so; the government adopted amendments increasing criminal penalties for traffickers, including rescinding the provision allowing alleged traffickers to pay a settlement to victims to withdraw their criminal cases; authorities developed victim identification guidelines for diplomatic staff and provided victim identification training to some labor inspectors; the government took initial steps toward improving its annual NGO funding process; the government's efforts to identify and protect foreign victims increased; foreign victims who did not participate in criminal investigations were ineligible for services and were deported; law enforcement continued to make limited efforts to investigate, prosecute, and convict labor trafficking crimes; trafficking convictions decreased for the fourth consecutive year; NGOs reported allegations of police officers' involvement in human trafficking, but few police or other officials suspected of complicity were investigated or prosecuted (2020)
current situation: Turkmenistan is a source, and to a much lesser degree, destination country for men, women, and children who are subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking; Turkmen in search of work in other countries are forced to work in textile sweatshops, construction, and domestic service; some Turkmen women and girls are sex trafficked abroad; Turkey is the primary trafficking destination, followed by Russia, India, and other countries in the Middle East, South and Central Asia, and Europe; labor trafficking occurs within Turkmenistan, particularly in the construction industry; government officials require employees in private sector institutions, soldiers, and public sector workers to pick cotton without payment under the threat of penalty, such as dismissal, reduced work hours, or salary deductions to meet government-imposed quotas for the cotton harvest

tier rating: Tier 3 - Turkmenistan does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so; the government approved the 2020-2022 national action plan, continued anti-trafficking awareness campaigns, worked with international organizations on combating trafficking, provided training to its diplomatic corps on human trafficking, and identified potential trafficking victims at the international airport; however, the  government used forced labor in the cotton harvest and public works projects; no officials were held accountable for their role in trafficking crimes; authorities did not prosecute or convict any traffickers; no victims were identified and offered protection or assistance programs (2020)

Environment

KazakhstanTurkmenistan
Air pollutantsparticulate matter emissions: 11.32 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.)

carbon dioxide emissions: 247.21 megatons (2016 est.)

methane emissions: 45.03 megatons (2020 est.)
particulate matter emissions: 19.02 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.)

carbon dioxide emissions: 70.63 megatons (2016 est.)

methane emissions: 52.09 megatons (2020 est.)
Total water withdrawalmunicipal: 2.347 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)

industrial: 6.984 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)

agricultural: 15.12 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)
municipal: 755 million cubic meters (2017 est.)

industrial: 839 million cubic meters (2017 est.)

agricultural: 26.36 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)
Revenue from forest resourcesforest revenues: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)forest revenues: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)
Revenue from coalcoal revenues: 0.99% of GDP (2018 est.)coal revenues: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)
Waste and recyclingmunicipal solid waste generated annually: 4,659,740 tons (2012 est.)

municipal solid waste recycled annually: 136,064 tons (2012 est.)

percent of municipal solid waste recycled: 2.9% (2012 est.)
municipal solid waste generated annually: 500,000 tons (2013 est.)

Source: CIA Factbook